The Middle and Lower Danube has been the most important communication route from antiquity to the present day. It constitutes a region or border areas, often troubled by numerous conflicts, due to population movements, amid internal power struggles of Rome, and later as a result of conflicts between the Tatars, respectively the Ottomans and the Kingdom of Hungary or the Habsburgs. All the fortifications that we will encounter within the routes of the castra, fortresses or castles are related to the geo-political situation in the region.

The conflicts between Dacians and Romans began as early as the first century BC when Caesar planned a campaign against Burebista, one of the few chieftains who united most Dacian tribes under his rule, but both soon died.

Colțești Nobiliary Citadel  »

In the first century AD, Dacians and Romans have several conflicts, Roman provinces being created in the immediate vicinity of the Dacian kingdom, afterwards included in the Roman Empire following some of the most important battles of antiquity.

The Romans would not have managed to conquer such a large space without a well-developed infrastructure, building, for the conquest of Dacia, several masterpieces of engineering: the suspended road, carved into the rock, through the Danube Cauldrons and the connection between it and the territory north of the Danube: Bridge of Apollodorus of Damascus (architect of Trajan's Column). 

The conquest of Dacia was considered one of the most important military operations, along with the civil wars, a fact explained in modern and ancient historiographies. The significance of these events is illustrated in Roman history and debates in ancient sources. The Dacians, along with the Parthians, are perceived as the most important enemies since the beginning of the Roman Empire, as evidenced by the 150,000 soldiers mobilized for their defeat.

The main routes followed by the Romans north of the Danube must have been the same arteries as those of the future province north of the Danube, similar now to the Route of the Castra. Direct evidence of the occupation of territories north of the Danube during the First War are the title of Dacicus that Trajan took in 102 AD, Cassius Dio's declaration that he left troops at Zermizegehusa and several other places (68,9.6), and the construction of the bridge at Drobeta. In addition, Decebalus' demand, before the Second War, that the land up to Ister (Danube) be returned to him in exchange for Longinus (68, 12.2).

The Arutela Roman Camp »

The Romans, in their advance towards the Dacian fortresses in the Sureanu Mountains, did not follow, where the terrain became difficult, the valleys used in today's traffic, but the ridges and passes of the mountains. So far, we know "marching castra" only in the mountains, with few exceptions. Pliny the Younger approves of Trajan who boasts of his achievements, including the garrison of troops built high in the steep mountains (Pliny VIII.4). We know less of the scenes from Trajan's Column. The conquerors are often depicted affected or wounded, with Trajan himself intervening to bandage the soldiers, which is unusual for a triumphal monument. The drama of the wars is proven by several other scenes, with the Dacians destroying their own fortifications, one of them being Sarmizegetusa Regia (Grădiștea de Munte), which for a while became a Roman castra.

Of the 30 objectives included in the Route of the Fortresses, seven are Dacian fortresses, six of them being directly connected to the routes of the Romans in their attacks in the Dacian wars. The main objective of the attacks was the capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia, which was also the main Roman fortification in the area, built immediately after the First Dacian War, abandoned shortly afterwards, the enclosure wall being rebuilt by the Dacians. The itinerary also includes the paved road, one of the most impressive monuments of antiquity, which connects the fortification with the temple area.

Entrance to the forum of Trajan – Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa »

Roman roads were built immediately after the creation of Dacia province, the earliest proof being the milestone discovered at Aiton (Cluj County) dated to 108 A.D., one in a long line of well-established itineraries.

The fortifications of Dacia, 20 of them included in the "castra route", include the most fertile territories necessary to supply a large army. It also includes the areas richest in deposits, such as the Golden Quadrilateral in the Apuseni Mountains, but also the richest areas in surface saline deposits. Some are still considered the most important resources in Europe today. In the eighteenth century, over 100,000 tons of salt were produced annually in Transylvania from these salt mines, and now, thanks to advanced technological means, several million tons. Even during the time of province, the Romans used, unlike today, the ridge roads, which is why the landscapes you will encounter when you visit the small fortifications of Ighiu, Trâmpoiele (near Zlatna) and Abrud, all in Alba County, are spectacular. These castra were designed to control commercial traffic to and from the mines in the gold area. As well as the similar fortification, also small, from Titești, in Lovistei Land, on the road that bypasses Olt and Cozia Massif, even though Olt was also used by the Romans. In the castra here, such as the semi-flooded one at Arutela, there are garrisoned special troops, the only ones epigraphically attested in the Roman Empire, by the Burgari (those occupying a burgus, a smaller castrum), the Veredari ("mail" horsemen or for special expeditions) or by the Orientals. It is obvious that the Romans tried to use, to their advantage, natural borders, which is why some of the most important fortifications and settlements in Dacia are found along the Danube (Drobeta, Hinova, Sucidava), Mures (Apulum, Micia, Cigmău or Războieni), Timis (Tibiscum), Someș (Gilău, Ilişua) or Criș (Bologa), always in strategically important points. Some are important bridgeheads, such as the traces of Trajan's bridge in Drobeta or of Constantine’s the Great bridge in Sucidava.

Roman Castrum in Pietroasele »

The Roman border line in northern and eastern Transylvania, composed of the most important fortifications (Războieni, Călugăreni or Sânpaul), is very close to the salt quarries used today (Rupea, Sinpaul, Odorheiu Secuiesc, Praid, Sovata, Bistrița, Beclean or Dej), incorporating them.

The earliest settlement of Dacia, and the most important next to Apulum, remains the veteran colony of Sarmizegetusa, built by Trajan's legionaries midway between the two legionary castra of the early province: Berzovia and Apulum. Here is built the most important public building researched so far in Dacia, the Roman forum, whose ruins are visible today. A journey through it will transport us to the forums of Rome, the one of Sarmizegetusa being a copy of the one in the capital of the Empire. 

How far the Romans advanced north, east or west and how much of the territory remained controlled by the Dacians is difficult to say. It was assumed that this area was limited to Transylvania, although the Romans reach distant regions, deep into Moldavia, on Siret, Galați-Barboși, or up to the fortresses of Batca Doamnei, Cozia or Piatra Șoimului, occupying southern Bessarabia and the northern shore of the Black Sea, such as Orlovka (Cahul) and Novoselskoe (Satu Nou). In the north, the Romans apparently reach the Sighet area. In this context, we can also include the few Roman fortifications in Wallachia, which functioned only during Trajan's time, such as the castra of Drajna de Sus and Pietroasele. Even in the vicinity of these outposts, civil settlements are developing, spectacular Roman baths being built, their ruins being also visible at the castra in Prahova and Buzau counties, not far from the last fortification being discovered the famous Gothic treasure known as "The hen with the golden chickens".

All Dacian fortresses that were still functioning will cease to exist, such as the most important ones in the Sureanu Mountains included in the Route of the Fortresses: Sarmizegetusa Regia, Blidaru, Costesti or Banita, but also others located in remote regions, outside the future province of Dacia, such as the one in Moinești. One of the important elements that helps us in establishing the chronology of these fortresses is the Dacian painted ceramics. You would not expect that in these fortresses-settlements on the heights you would discover elements specific to the urban or quasi-urban environment.

Feldioara Citadel  »

The same goes for the earliest medieval fortresses included in the same Fortress Route. Since the first Iron Age (Hallstatt), civil settlements have been organized inside large earthen fortresses, as must have been the case with the fortress of Balnaca, in the impressive karst area of Crișul Repede. The proof of the strategic importance of some fortresses, such as this one, is their reuse in the medieval period. 

The most important Greek colony on the Black Sea, Histria, is one of the earliest settlements included in the route, along with the Roman-Byzantine fortified settlement of Ulmetum dated in the IV-V centuries AD, the latter an important symbol of the Danube border, along with other similar camps in Dobrogea.

Some of the earliest medieval fortresses are also included within the same route. Not all of them were permanently inhabited by civilians, often garrisoned by small groups of soldiers led by a castellan who lived with his family and who supervised a certain area, especially to control traffic. Many are located near the former Roman borders, but on heights (Ciceului Fortress, where the treasure of Petru Rareș who fled here from Moldavia is said to be hidden, Bologa or, one of the earliest, Bálványos Fortress, near Turia), as proof of the strategic importance of different areas. Other fortresses, placed according to the new geo-political situations, which are related to the territories controlled by the Ottomans, Hungarians and Habsburgs, have a decisive role in territorial control, such as the medieval fortresses of Severin or Timisoara. About the last Ioan Hațegan said: "He who conquers Buda rules a city. He who rules Timișoara rules a country."

Bologa Medieval Fortress  »

The early medieval fortresses are therefore placed similarly to the prehistoric and Dacian fortresses, on heights, compared to the Roman ones that were almost always located in valleys. The position is directly related to the role they were performing. If Roman castra do not have a defensive role, being only bases for garrison soldiers, the early medieval ones were real fortresses, developing from a simple tower to real fortified ensembles. All fortresses, from Dacian to medieval, have specific gate towers or dwelling towers, and later artillery towers. The location of these fortresses also determines the specific toponyms, "Grădiște", as is the case at Sarmizegetusa Regia, Cetatea Vulturilor for Bănița or Piatra Șoimului for the fortress near Aleşd.

Many of the early medieval fortresses (Bologa, Almaş, Moldovenești, Colțești, Şinteu, Ciceu, Jimbor or Valcău) are ruined with the attacks of the Tatars, and the later castles (Bălnaca or Colțești), in the context of the Kuruc War, when the Habsburgs annihilate the revolts. Even after the fortresses no longer fulfilled the role of fortifications, their towers continue to be used, useful for example for storing bacon, a Saxon custom preserved until the 40s of the last century, one of the best examples being the old bastion from Jimbor Fortress.

It is often hard to tell the difference between a fortress and a castle, and the best example is the Corvin Castle in Hunedoara. Some of the fortresses turn into residence castles, which no longer have the role of military fortifications, some of the most significant being included in the Castle Route. Thus, the fortifications on the heights are slowly abandoned. This is primarily due to the evolution of artillery. Rarely do cities on the heights continue to be used, as is the case of Deva, Feldioara or Mehadia, the last two former garrisons of the Teutonic Knights.

Corvin Castle Architectural Ensemble »

The architecture adapts to new, increasingly powerful firearms. The castle-residences are fortified and become increasingly luxurious, after the Italian Renaissance style. The most widespread form of Renaissance castle in Transylvania was the quadrilateral enclosure with corner towers, circular or rhomboidal, wedge-shaped, of "old" Italian type. But there were also more complex plans, such as the hexagonal shape of the castle at Vințu de Jos, where Bishop Martinuzzi, who had built it, met his end. The Italian school of architecture also influences the evolution of the fortified enclosures of castles and cities. Gate or corner towers, mostly for artillery, evolve from quadrilateral to circular and then pentagonal, with an acute angle protrusion ("axis towers", e.g. Cluj) or "with ears" (from Italian "oreccchione", the Italian "new" system). The evolution from one architectural style to another would have been visible at Bethlen Castle in Beclean, if it had not disappeared long ago, which, after the wars of the mid-sixteenth century, is transformed into a fortress according to Renaissance principles of defense, the model being the castle of Gherla. Also vanished is the fortification of Cluj, on the Citadel, built this time in Vauban style, similar to the "new" Italian style, based on projects elaborated by military architect Giovanni Morando Visconti.

Sturdza Castle  »

The bastion fortresses, most of them star-shaped, are thus becoming more and more widespread, and an example of a specific bastion is the "Crăișorul" from Oradea. Most of these fortresses would withstand attacks from wars between the Holy League and the Ottomans, but eventually they would be destroyed or transformed. 

Even the bastions placed at the gates or along the defensive walls of the cities adapt to the evolution of artillery, as can be seen in Cluj, Sighisoara, Bistrita or at the Drapers' Bastion in Brasov, cities that no longer need presentation, but which are now brought back to life. Some of them do not change their shape, but other levels are added, such as the "Student's Tower" in Sebeş, where a student resisted the siege of the Turks. City precincts are sometimes doubled, some with spectacular entrance gates. Thus, new architectural elements appear, such as the so-called barbacana (a fortified entrance yard, most often with a semi-circular wall), the most spectacular being known in Brasov, or the zwinger (=outer ward), an additional ring wall, where the civilian population and cattle could be protected.

The historical centers of the oldest cities in Transylvania still preserve the charm of the medieval era, and along the route we learn the story of one of the most interesting: Brasov. As the construction of castles was forbidden in cities, most manor-castles are located on the outskirts of the residences of large owners. Most castles and fortresses disappear by the seventeenth century, but some continue to be used as residences until the nineteenth century, others are built in the eighteenth and even nineteenth centuries, in the architectural styles of the era, as some of the most spectacular examples, such as the Ladislau and Huniade castles in Budila and Timisoara,  The Ghica mansion from Ghergani or the Sturdza family from Miclăușeni, with the credo, "Beauty shines everywhere", specific to "Belle Epoque", inscribed on all sides of the castle. The Béldy castles in Jibou and Salbek in Petris are inspired by Greco-Roman architecture, the Brâncoveanu style of the castle from Sâmbăta de Sus, and the "romantic" castle from Arcalia is adorned with Moorish and Byzantine architectural elements. The one in Sancrai combines several architectural styles, especially Art-Nouveau and eclectic classicism, similar to the Urmánczy Castle in Toplița. The units of time measurement are expressed by architectural elements at the "calendar castle" of the Ugron family from Zau de Campie.

Teleki Castle »

Very likely, some castles or mansions, including those described above, have never had a defensive role, even if they keep the typical castle shape, such as those of the Pekri family or the Kálnoky family from Ozd, respectively Valea Crisului.

Through this project, fascinating stories from all these fortresses, camps and castles are brought back to life, sometimes even of love, such as Claudia Rhédey's from Sangeorgiu de Padure, sometimes related to their secrets, such as the tunnels from Dumbrăveni.

The history of architecture in our area must always be seen in the wider European political context, even before Europe existed, here meeting some of the most spectacular models, some unique, of fortification architecture. From this brief description it becomes obvious that the routes should not be crossed separately, being interconnected, and with the help of applications you will be transposed into forgotten worlds, especially since many of the monuments are either underground, ruined or disappeared. On the routes circumscribed by the objectives in the routes described above, you can find numerous other monuments that could have been part of these itineraries. Among them are relevant the fortifications within the Borders of the Roman Empire (limes), most of which are to be included on the World Heritage lists (UNESCO), but also other heritage monuments, along with numerous other attractions of nature, from caves to dendrological parks (eg Teleki Castle in Gornesti), but also beautiful landscapes.